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THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

March 4, 1789

Preamble

We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

Article I

Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.

Section 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several states, and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature.

No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen.

Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one Representative； and until such enumeration shall be made, the state of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three.

When vacancies happen in the Representation from any state, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies.

The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers； and shall have the sole power of impeachment.

Section 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years； and each Senator shall have one vote.Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year； and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies.

No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen.

The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided.

The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States.

The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the members present.

Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States: but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment, according to law.

Section 4. The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof； but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators.

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day.Section 5. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business； but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each House may provide.

Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member.

Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy； and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal.

Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.

Section 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same； and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place.

No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time； and no person holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office.

Section 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives； but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other Bills.

Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States； if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each House respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law.

Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States； and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill.

Section 8. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States； but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States；

To borrow money on the credit of the United States；

To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes；

To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States；

To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures；

To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States；

To establish post offices and post roads；

To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries；

To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court；

To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations；

To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water；

To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years；

To provide and maintain a navy；

To make rules for the and regulation of the land and naval forces；

To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions；

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress；

To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings；

To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof.

各位法律高手帮帮忙！！！

问题一：翻译 西安小吃 胡辣汤 用英文怎么说 胡辣汤是pepper and chili soup,老外喝的汤一般都不会起专门的名字,都是直接描述出汤里有什么原料。

问题二：胡辣汤英语作文 是去买卖

问题三：胡辣汤做法及其相应的英文翻译 Pepper Soup

by Ebrima and Kiki Touray

Ingredients

1 tablespoon black pepper

1 tablespoon red pepper

1 tablespoon seasoning salt

dash of garlic salt

1 tablespoon chicken flavoring (Maggie cube)

1 6-8 oz can of tomato paste

1 lb of cut up chicken

Directions

Boil chicken in a large pot for ten minutes with 8 cups of water.

Add black pepper, red pepper seasoning salt, garlic salt and chicken flavoring (Maggie ube).

Boil until there is about 2 cups of broth left in pan.

Add a can of tomato paste and cook until the soup is thick.

Serve over rice.

问题四：中国象棋术语“应将”用英语怎么说？不要直接翻译，要英文术语，谢谢 我找了很多网站，都没有应将这个英文单词。。不知是不是英文没有这个专属名词，或者不常用到。我知道将军是check，应将 可能是encounter check.

长将 perpetual check

长捉 perpetual chase, perpetual pursuit

长兑 perpetual exchange offer

长杀 perpetual mating threat

长拦 perpetual blocking

长跟 perpetual follow

捉双 fork, attacking two pieces

有根 rooted, protected

无根 unrooted, unprotected

兵种 piece-kind

搏杀 bat, wrestle, sharp attacking each other

攻势 attack

反攻 counter attack

入局 mating assault

空门 undefended sector, weak sector

分先 play at par

封锁 seal off, blockade

一将一停 check & wait

一将一捉 check & chase

一将一杀 check & mating

一杀一停 mating & wait

一杀一捉 mating & chase

一捉一停 chase & wait

平稳局势 calm game, secured position

散漫局势 disorderly position, scattered position

可胜形势 winning position

子力活跃 Active pieces

子力呆滞 passive pieces

后继手段 bination moves

尚可支持 Tenable situation

对局记录 record (of game)

实用残局 practical end game

棋谱着法 text move

局势, 局面 position, siduation

正着, 官着 right move, correct move

得先, 反先 gain initiative

封棋, 保留 adjourn, adjournment

后手, 被动 passive

失先, 失一先 lose initiative, lose a tempo

杀, 催杀 mate, mating threat

让一先 1-move handicap

让长先 perpetual 1-move handicap

让二先 2-move handicap

让三先 3-move handicap

让单马 1-horse handicap

让双马 2-horse handicap

闲, 停 wait

将 check

捉 chase, pursue

兑 exchange, trade

拦 block

跟 follow

进 move forwards, advance

退 move backwards, retreat

平 move sidewards, traverse...>>

问题五：怎样摆脱低落情绪？ 其实失恋真的会把我们弄的面目全非，有时我们自己都不认得自己了！但是只要我们心中有爱，记着那种爱是博爱啊。可以尝试着做一些有意义的事情，比如说帮助别人啊或者去旅行啊之类的。还可以去结交一些异性朋友或者和朋友聊天场类的，总之都可以的。痛苦是短暂的，人生苦短，我们要开心的活着，因为比我们痛苦的人还有很多啊！朋友开心点，明天一定会很好的！

问题六：翻译 西安小吃 胡辣汤 用英文怎么说 胡辣汤是pepper and chili soup,老外喝的汤一般都不会起专门的名字,都是直接描述出汤里有什么原料。

问题七：胡辣汤英语作文 是去买卖

问题八：胡辣汤做法及其相应的英文翻译 Pepper Soup

by Ebrima and Kiki Touray

Ingredients

1 tablespoon black pepper

1 tablespoon red pepper

1 tablespoon seasoning salt

dash of garlic salt

1 tablespoon chicken flavoring (Maggie cube)

1 6-8 oz can of tomato paste

1 lb of cut up chicken

Directions

Boil chicken in a large pot for ten minutes with 8 cups of water.

Add black pepper, red pepper seasoning salt, garlic salt and chicken flavoring (Maggie ube).

Boil until there is about 2 cups of broth left in pan.

Add a can of tomato paste and cook until the soup is thick.

Serve over rice.

问题九：中国象棋术语“应将”用英语怎么说？不要直接翻译，要英文术语，谢谢 我找了很多网站，都没有应将这个英文单词。。不知是不是英文没有这个专属名词，或者不常用到。我知道将军是check，应将 可能是encounter check.

长将 perpetual check

长捉 perpetual chase, perpetual pursuit

长兑 perpetual exchange offer

长杀 perpetual mating threat

长拦 perpetual blocking

长跟 perpetual follow

捉双 fork, attacking two pieces

有根 rooted, protected

无根 unrooted, unprotected

兵种 piece-kind

搏杀 bat, wrestle, sharp attacking each other

攻势 attack

反攻 counter attack

入局 mating assault

空门 undefended sector, weak sector

分先 play at par

封锁 seal off, blockade

一将一停 check & wait

一将一捉 check & chase

一将一杀 check & mating

一杀一停 mating & wait

一杀一捉 mating & chase

一捉一停 chase & wait

平稳局势 calm game, secured position

散漫局势 disorderly position, scattered position

可胜形势 winning position

子力活跃 Active pieces

子力呆滞 passive pieces

后继手段 bination moves

尚可支持 Tenable situation

对局记录 record (of game)

实用残局 practical end game

棋谱着法 text move

局势, 局面 position, siduation

正着, 官着 right move, correct move

得先, 反先 gain initiative

封棋, 保留 adjourn, adjournment

后手, 被动 passive

失先, 失一先 lose initiative, lose a tempo

杀, 催杀 mate, mating threat

让一先 1-move handicap

让长先 perpetual 1-move handicap

让二先 2-move handicap

让三先 3-move handicap

让单马 1-horse handicap

让双马 2-horse handicap

闲, 停 wait

将 check

捉 chase, pursue

兑 exchange, trade

拦 block

跟 follow

进 move forwards, advance

退 move backwards, retreat

平 move sidewards, traverse...>>

问题十：怎样摆脱低落情绪？ 其实失恋真的会把我们弄的面目全非，有时我们自己都不认得自己了！但是只要我们心中有爱，记着那种爱是博爱啊。可以尝试着做一些有意义的事情，比如说帮助别人啊或者去旅行啊之类的。还可以去结交一些异性朋友或者和朋友聊天场类的，总之都可以的。痛苦是短暂的，人生苦短，我们要开心的活着，因为比我们痛苦的人还有很多啊！朋友开心点，明天一定会很好的！

纽约的英文介绍 地理位置 人口 大小

常用法庭英语

Contempt of Court——蔑视法庭、蔑视法庭

A finding that someone disobeyed a court order. Can also mean disrupting court, for example, by being loud or disrespectful in court.

A finding of contempt of court may result from a failure to obey a lawful order of a court, showing disrespect for the judge, disruption of the proceedings through poor behavior, or publication of material deemed likely to jeopardize a fair trial. A judge may impose sanctions such as a fine or jail for someone found guilty of contempt of court. Typically judges in common law systems have more extensive power to declare someone in contempt than judges in civil law systems.

In English law (a common law jurisdiction) the law on contempt is partly set out in case law, and partly specified in the Contempt of Court Act 1981. Contempt may be a criminal or civil offence.

注 藐视法庭，是一种严重的罪行，可以被判罚款或监禁。藐视法庭包括不遵守法庭命令、违反对法庭作出的承诺，妨碍司法公正等行为。

『笺』 藐视法庭罪，其惩罚范围极其宽泛：凡不服从或不尊重法庭或法官、可能影响司法运作之言行，皆可入罪。蔑视法庭罪，部分是渊源于判例法，部分依据1981年《蔑视法庭法案》。

藐视法庭罪，是指负有举证责任的单位和个人迟延提交证据或者拒不提交证据；负有出庭作证的单位和个人无正当理由拒不出庭作证；负有协助法庭执行审判职务的义务拒不履行协助义务；拒不交纳法庭罚款；在法庭上辱骂或者殴打司法工作人员；对法官进行言语攻击和无理纠缠；聚众哄闹、冲击法庭、扰乱法庭秩序，情节严重的行为。Contributory Negligence——分担责任、过失责任

Contributory negligence， is a common law defence to a claim or action in tort. It applies to a situation where a plaintiff or claimant has, through their own negligence, caused or contributed to the injury they suffered from a tort. For example where a pedestrian crosses a road carelessly and is hit by a driver who is also driving carelessly.

注 意外中的伤者对意外的造成及他自己的受伤程度，需要分担部份疏忽的责任，他所获得的赔偿额也会相对地减少。

其适用范围是，当事人双方在该民事侵权行为中因其自己的疏忽而引发的意外伤害，其必须承担一定的责任。

『笺』 关于受害人过错的性质，学说上也有不同的观点，主要有“不忠实态度说”、“违反社会义务说”、“未采取合理注意说”和“未预见说”四种。“不忠实态度说”认为，受害人的过错是指受害人违背诚实信用原则，对其自身采取了不忠实的态度；“违反社会义务说”则认为，人人均对其人身和财产负有一种合理的注意义务，违反此义务实际上构成对社会义务的违反；“未采取合理注意说”认为，受害人负有一种使自己处于安全状态、并不使加害人处于一种负责任的危险状态的义务。若受害人未尽合理注意而违反该义务，则不仅使自己处于不安全状态中，而且使他人处于负责任的不安全状态中，于此场合，受害人便有过错；“未预见说”认为，受害人应当预见并且能够预见到自己可能遭受损害。

Continuance——休庭

The adjournment or postponement of a court case to another day.

注 即暂时中止一案件的审理，并择日再审。

Copyright——版权

An intangible right granted by statute to the author or originator of certain literary or artistic productions, whereby, for a limited period, the exclusive privilege is given to the person to make copies of the same for publication and sale.

注 版权，是作者对他所创作的作品的发表、翻印、复制等专有权利，版权在作品完成后便自动产生及受法律保护，毋须经过任何注册程序，但必须为原创作品才拥有版权。

『笺』 美国的第一部版权法是1790年版权法，这部法律保障作者14年出版“地图、图表和书籍”的专权。美国现行的版权法是1976年修改并于1978年月1月1日生效的版权法。尽管美国版权法是国内法，但其对于外国作者的版权在一定情况下给予保护。即不管作者的国籍，只要其作品于1978年1月1日后第一次在美国出版的，美国版权法对其权利给予一定的保护。如果外国作者的作品是1978年以前出版的，其必须是与美国签订有版权公约的有关国家的公民或者其在美国有住所。关于版权侵权方面，美国版权法仅限于保护侵权行为发生在美国的情况。对发生在美国国外的版权侵权问题，美国版权法一般不对版权所有者提供保护。

Counter Claim——反诉、反要求、反索赔

A claim by the defendant in a civil action that the defendant is entitled to damages or other relief from the plaintiff.

注 在民事诉讼中，被告可以对原告提出赔偿等反要求。

反诉，是指在已经开始的民事诉讼程序里，被告按照起诉的程序和方式，以本诉的原告作为被告，向法院提出的和本诉有联系的保护自己的民事权利和合法利益的请求。原告提起的诉称为本诉（或称原诉），被告提起的诉称为反诉。

『笺』 反诉与反驳不同。反驳是被告为维护自己的合法权益，针对原告提出的诉讼请求，提出种种有利于自己的事实和根据进行驳斥或否定。根据被告所提出的事实和理由的不同，被告的反驳可以分为程序上的反驳和实体上的反驳。

Court-Appointed Attorney:——法庭指定律师、法庭指定辩护律师

An attorney who is asked by the court (judge) to either represent a party to the case, or to serve in some other capacity that the case requires.

注 法庭指定律师，指的是由法庭指定的以代某一案件的当事人进行辩护的律师。

『笺』 美国宪法第六条修正案规定，被告人享有获得律师帮助为其辩护的权利。在司法实践中，这一保障被理解为在刑事诉讼的每个重要阶段被告人都可以由其律师代表，其目的是切实保障刑事被告人在刑事诉讼各阶段的合法权益不受侵犯，切实保障法庭的公正审判得以实现。如果被告人因贫穷无钱聘请律师，法院有义务为其指定律师，费用由政府方开支。

Court Interpreter——庭审口译员

The person who translates court hearings from English to another language. Provided at state expense in all criminal cases and in cases enforcing child support orders, if requested. No interpreter is available for divorce or any other civil case.

注 庭审口译员，即将庭审内容翻译成其他语言的人。庭审口译主要发生在刑事案件和青少年案件中，象离婚等民事案件无权要求庭审口译。

『笺』 有史记载的法庭口译最早可以追溯到十七世纪在南非的殖民时期（Moeketsi, 1999; Mikkelson，2000）。Colin Morris (1996)比较详细地记录了1682年和1820年在英国进行的有口译服务的庭审（引自Mikkelson，2000）。1682年的那次庭审涉及一件凶杀案，诉讼各方有多种语言背景。而当时法庭在决定哪一方诉讼人有权享有法庭口译服务时，依据的不是各方的语言需求而是阶级，即说英语的贵族才有权享有口译服务。1820年的庭审则是一场涉及卡罗琳王后的通奸案。该案的庭审口译不仅翻译了证人证言的语言内容，而且还解释了其中的文化差异（Mikkelson，2000）。

美国联邦法院于1978年制订了《庭审口译员法案》(Court Interpreters Act of 1978)，要求法庭口译员必须完整准确、一字不差地(verbatim)翻译源语信息，不得修饰和省略源语信息，不得更改源话语的语体和语域。该法案为联邦地方法院在美国作为原告时的民事和刑事诉讼中使用庭审口译服务提供了依据，也为颁发庭审口译员证书提供了依据，标志着美国议会对庭审口译这一专业性很强的职业的认可。从此，法庭口译成为一个独立的职业，专门为英语水平较差者提供语言服务。该法案规定的两类服务对象是：只会说或主要说除英语以外的其他语言的，以及有听力障碍的。

Cross-Examination——交互讯问

Questioning by a party or the attorney of an adverse party or a witness.

To question thoroughly and relentlessly to verify facts: interrogate. Informal grill. Idioms: give someone the third degree.

注 所谓cross-examination，按照英美法系的审判制度，起诉方和被告方均可要求法院传唤证人出庭作证，在庭上先由要求传证人的一方向证人提问，然后再由对方向证人提问，也就是起诉方讯问被告方的证人或被告方讯问起诉方的证人，即双方交叉讯问证人。

Custody——保管，监护，拘留

A court order deciding where a child will live and how decisions about the child will be made. Parents may ask for any custody arrangement that they believe is in the best interest of their child.

注 一般而言，Custody这个名词是指对象的保管或拥有，而在刑事案件中，则指对被告的拘留。Custody of Children 是指对未成年子女的监护权。

Damages——损害赔偿金

Money a party receives as compensation for a legal wrong.

注 所谓损害赔偿金，指的是一方当事人因受到侵害而收到的一笔钱。例如：The court awarded the victim of the industrial accident one hundred thousand dollars in damages. （法庭判给劳动事故中受害者100,000美元的赔偿金。）

『笺』 惩罚性赔偿（punitive damages），一般是指由法庭作出的赔偿数额超出了实际损害的赔偿，因此也被称为惩戒性赔偿（exemplary damages）或报复性赔偿（vindictive damages）。在《牛津法律大词典》中，punitive damages，exemplary damages，vindictive damages，是同义词，系一个术语，有时用来指判定的损害赔偿金，它不仅是对原告的补偿，而且也是对故意加害人的惩罚。

另外还有附带性赔偿(incidental damages) 、专门损害赔偿(special damages)等词。

Date rape——约会、约会时发生的案

forcible sexual intercourse by a male acquaintance of a woman, during a voluntary social engagement in which the woman did not intend to submit to the sexual advances and resisted the acts by verbal refusals, denials or pleas to stop, and/or physical resistance. The fact that the parties knew each other or that the woman willingly accompanied the man are not legal defenses to a charge of rape, although one Pennsylvania decision ruled that there had to be some actual physical resistance.

注 被迫的行为如果发生在约会的时候，就称之为“约会”，这同陌生人所犯的行为一样罪恶。Date rape（约会）是熟识者（acquaintance rape）之一种，它比（sexual harassment）的程度更加严重，但又和不同。

Day in court——出庭日

popular term for everyone''s opportunity to bring a lawsuit or use the court system if he/she thinks he/she has a gripe which can be resolved in court. Example: "John finally got his day in court to protest his speeding ticket."

注 一个人出庭申诉或辩护的日子。

Debtor——债务人

One who owes a debt or the performance of an obligation to another, who is called the creditor（债权人）; one who may be compelled to pay a claim or demand; anyone liable on a claim, whether due or to become due.

注 debtor（债务人），即债的关系中有义务按约定的条件向另一方（债权人）承担为或不为一定行为的当事人。在债的关系中，债务人是特定的，只有该义务主体才必须向债权人承担交付财产、提供劳务和为或不为一定行为的义务。债务人可以是公民，可以是法人，国家作为民事主体出现时也可以具备债务人的资格。

Decree——法庭判决、判令

A judgment of a court that announces the legal consequences of the facts found in a case and orders that the court''s decision be carried out.

Decree is sometimes used interchangeably with determination and order.

注 法庭就就某案件所陈事实所作的宣判、判决以及须执行的判令、裁定。Decree（法庭判决）有时可以determination、order来替用。

法庭聆讯后所作出的判令，可以分成暂时性判令“decree nisi””和永久性判令 “decree absolute”，常见于离婚呈请的程序。一般而言，法庭颁出decree nisi后，在指定的期限过后，除非收到反对，否则都会颁出永久判令。

Deed——契约

A written instrument, which has been signed and delivered, by which one individual, the grantor, conveys title to real property to another individual, the grantee; a conveyance of land, tenements, or hereditaments, from one individual to another.

At common law, a deed was an instrument under seal that contained a covenant or contract delivered by the individual who was to be bound by it to the party to whom it was granted. It is no longer required that such an instrument be sealed.

注 契约，是一种特别的合约，须要经过当事人签署、盖章并送交对方才算有效，契约上的盖章在法律上被视为一种有效的约因。它一般指土地、房屋、可继承财产的转让。

De facto——事实上的、实际的

Latin for "in fact." Often used in place of "actual" to show that the court will treat as a fact authority being exercised or an entity acting as if it had authority, even though the legal requirements have not been met.

注 De facto（事实上的、实际的），de facto系拉丁文，意谓“虽法律上站不住，但事实上却为人所承认”。例如：de facto segregation（事实上的种族隔离）；a de facto （事实政府）；de facto standard（实质标准）。

又如，de facto corporation：地下工厂，又称“事实上公司”(corporation de facto)，即指未领有政府发给的合法执照，便开始营业或开工生产的公司或工厂。该公司或工厂。该公司或工厂虽未合法登记成立，但其法律行为并非无效，例如其负责人与他人签订契约后，不得以该公司或工厂未经政府许可成立而拒绝履约。

『笺』 De facto marriage（事实婚姻），是与法律婚姻相对而言的婚姻形式，指符合结婚的法定实质要件的男女双方未办理结婚登记即以夫妻名义公开、长久同居生活的两性结合。英国、德国、美国、日本等国法律都承认事实婚姻，我国立法对事实婚姻的态度经历了“承认－不承认－承认”三个阶段。

Defalcation——盗用公款、挪用公款、侵吞公款

from Latin for "deduction," withholding or misappropriating funds held for another, particularly by a public official, or failing to make a proper accounting.

注 Defalcation（盗用/挪用/侵吞公款），源于拉丁语，意谓“扣除、减除”。此词指通过帐以扣交或盗用公款。

Defamation——诽谤

The publication of a statement that injures a person''s reputation. Libel and slander are defamation.

注 Defamation（诽谤），即非法破坏他人名誉的行为，口头的毁谤和以书面的永久形式诽谤都可以构成民事索偿的理据或者刑事罪行。

『笺』 根据一般的解释，所谓诽谤指的是恶意的评议。但在法律立场上，各国对诽谤行为的构成，各有不同的解释。例如在英国，诽谤被定义为“可以使公民受到憎恨、嘲笑或藐视的表述”，“使公民在思维正常的人中对他的评价降低的表述”等。在美国，诽谤的代表性定义有多种。美国最高法院为诽谤所下的定义是：“诽谤乃对于尊严之损害，如无其他正常原因，而故意刊布有害于某个人记载，此种记载又为虚伪的、或对他人属实，而对此受害人个人则否者，亦应负一般的违法责任。”纽约州刑法第1340条规定： “怀有恶意出版文字、印刷品、、画像、标记或者其他非口头形式的物品，使活着的人或对去的人的记忆受到憎恨、藐视、嘲笑或指责，使他人受到孤立或有受到孤立的倾向，或使他人或任何公司、社团在经验或职业上的名誉有受到损害的倾向，皆为诽谤。”

英美等西方国家的法律对“诽谤”的解释虽然不尽相同，但基本不出乎美国法学(American Law Institute)汇编的《民事侵权行为重述》这样的定义：“传播某种信息，这种传播倾向毁损他人名誉，以至于降低社会对他的尊重度，或阻止第三人与他产生关系，即为诽谤。”（See American Law Institute，Restatement of Torts,2d ed. Philadelphia:American Law Institute,1975）

Default——不履行责任/义务、失责行为、违约、缺席

The failure to fulfill a legal obligation, such as neglecting to pay back a loan on schedule.

Failure to make a required court appearance.

注 Default（不履行义务）即不履行法律义务。

另外，此词还审判时的缺庭。如default judgment（缺席审判）。

Defence/ defense——抗辩、辩护、答辩

1) a general term for the effort of an attorney representing a defendant during trial and in pre-trial maneuvers to defeat the party suing or the prosecution in a criminal case.

2) a response to a complaint, called an affirmative defense, to counter, defeat or remove all or a part of the contentions of the plaintiff.

注 刑事或民事案件中的被告，否认有关的指控或申索，同时提出反对的支持事实。

『笺』 在诉讼上，当事人对于原告请求主张的事实，其反映态度不外有以下四种：即陈述（无该事实－否认）、不知或不记得有该事实、承认该事实（自认或先行自认的承认）、或不为任何陈述（不争执）。而对于自认往往伴有附带陈述而主张其他事实或权利来对原告的请求进行对抗，这就是抗辩。所以，在民事诉讼中，所谓抗辩，是针对请求权提出的一种防御方法，是指当事人通过主张与对方的主张事实所不同的事实或法律关系，以排斥对方所主张的事实的行为。

Horstmann said after jurors left for the day that he plans to move for a mistrial.求分析。

New York is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States, the nation's third most populous with an estimated population of 19,306,183 in 2006。 New York covers 54,556 square miles (141,299 km?) and ranks as the 27th largest state by size.The state is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east. New York is often referred to as New York State to distinguish it from New York City.

纽约州位于美国中大西洋及东北地区，是人口第三的州，据2006年统计人口为19，306，183。纽约的面积为141，299平方公里，是美国第27大州。南面是新泽西和宾夕法尼亚，东面是康涅狄格，马塞诸塞和佛蒙特州。

New York City is located in the Northeastern United States, in southeastern New York State, approximately halfway between Washington, D.C. and Boston.The city's land area is estimated at 304.8 square miles (789.43 km2).It is the largest city in the United States, with a metropolitan area that is among the largest urban areas in the world.

纽约市位于美国东北部，在纽约州的东南部，大约在华盛顿特区和波士顿中间。纽约的面积为789.43平方公里，拥有世界上最现代化的中心城区。

会议纪要的英文

Horstmann said after jurors left for the day that he plans to move for a mistrial.

1. 句子主干：Horstmann said that...

2. that 引导的是宾语从句，从句的结构为：he plans to move for...

V-T/V-I?At a meeting, if you?move?for?something or?move?that?something should happen, you formally suggest it so that everyone present can vote on it. 提议

Somebody needs to move for an adjournment.

需要有人提议休会。

3. after jurors left for the day 是状语（汉语的习惯是状语提前）

综上，全句的译文是：陪审员们离开后，Horstmann说他计划申请无效审判。

给我些关于法庭上面的资料 最好是中英文

会议纪要的英文范文

　引导语：怎样用英语写会议纪要呢，会议纪要的英文格式又是怎样的呢，下面是我为大家收集整理的会议纪要的英文范文，供大家参考。

会议纪要的英文范文一

　Minutes of meeting

　For

　......project

　In

　South sumatera，indonesia

　Attendance：Refer to Attached List(see Attachment 1)

　Date ： October 19, 2015

　Place ：Hangzhou

　1. The agreed agenda are as follows：

　A. Coal supply issue

　B. POA for signing MOU regarding the HVDC Sumatera-Java transmission Project

　C. Financial Advisor Mandate letter

　D. How to push forward the power plant，coal mine and transmission projects.

　2. General overview: All the shareholders have the same understanding that even if the project didn?t make expected progress in the past several months due to the HVDC T/L issues and the influence of the new Minning Law to coal supply scheme, all the attendees still have confidence that all these issues will be solved with the best efforts of all parties. Coal Supply issue

　PTBA made a comprehensive meaningful presentation regarding the new mining law, its impact to signed JVC Coal Mine and PTBA opinion for new coalsupply scheme as well as response to CDB letter of 11 August 2009.

　The summary of PTBA?s proposal scheme in its presentation is as follows:

　1 PTBA cannot assign its right and obligation as mining permits holder to other party pursuant to the new mining law.

　2 it is PTBA as mining permit holder who shall decide the coal price, hence, the revenues account shall be reckoned in PTBA?s book.(which may affect to royalty,tax,etc)

　3 coal supply agreement shall be established between JVC power and PTBA.

　4 PTBA cannot fulfill the requirement of CDB that the KP is held by PTBA?s subsidiary due to an uncertainty of getting KP by PTBA or its subsidiary.

　5 as long as PTBA holds the mining permit and hold a full authority of the mine then PTBA can give a guaranty of coal supply to JVC Power.

　The attendees discussed the proposed scheme made by PTBA as follows:

　PTBA concludes, base on all input from received information, the followings 4 possible coal supply schemes that comply with the new mining law:

　1 Pass-through scheme(scheme 1)

　2 PTBA as the coal supplier(scheme 2)

　3 JVC Coal Mine will be coal mining service company or other position(scheme 3)

会议纪要的英文范文二

　AAR Re-certification Reviewing Meeting Minutes

　October 26, 2011 Room 203

　MEMBERS PRESENT:

　MEMBERS ABSENT:

　OTHERS PRESENT:

　OVERVIEW (if any, depending on the type of the meeting):

　PROCEEDINGS:

　? Meetings called to order at (TIME) by (WHO & TITLE)

　? Report by (WHO & TITLE)

　? Discussion Topic (if any)

　?(WHO & OPINION)

　ANNOUNCEMENTS & DICISION MADES:

　ADJOURNMENT

　The meeting was adjourned at (TIME) by (WHO & TITLE). The next meeting is scheduled for (DATE & TIME)

　Respectfully submitted,

　(NAME & SIGNATURE), Secretary

　(NAME & SIGNATURE), Issuing & Chair

　Appendix:

　To:

　CC:

　8 MUSTs:

　Name of the Organization;

　Type of the Meeting;

　Date and Place of the Meeting;

　List of Members Present and Absent;

　Overview of the Topics Discussed and Decisions Made;

　Summary of the Action Items;

　Date of the Next Meeting;

　Time of the Adjournment.

会议纪要的英语范文三

　MINUTES OF THE DIRECTORS' MEETING

　HOLIDAY NOTICE

　Date:

　Place: The meeting room of the company

　Present:

　1.Report

　The notice of convening this meeting and the manager's report on the state of business of the company was read by the secretary.

　2.Resolution

　With the consent of the meeting, the chairman made a speech and proposed that a gold metal be given to Mr. Zhang as a reward for his industrious and successful service in the past 2 years. Mr. Zhang seconded the motion, which was then put to the meeting and carried unanimously.

　Signature:

　Date:

;

路过的英语高手帮我翻译一下这篇文字,我知道有点长,先谢谢了!

常用法庭英语

Contempt of Court——蔑视法庭、蔑视法庭

A finding that someone disobeyed a court order. Can also mean disrupting court, for example, by being loud or disrespectful in court.

A finding of contempt of court may result from a failure to obey a lawful order of a court, showing disrespect for the judge, disruption of the proceedings through poor behavior, or publication of material deemed likely to jeopardize a fair trial. A judge may impose sanctions such as a fine or jail for someone found guilty of contempt of court. Typically judges in common law systems have more extensive power to declare someone in contempt than judges in civil law systems.

In English law (a common law jurisdiction) the law on contempt is partly set out in case law, and partly specified in the Contempt of Court Act 1981. Contempt may be a criminal or civil offence.

注 藐视法庭，是一种严重的罪行，可以被判罚款或监禁。藐视法庭包括不遵守法庭命令、违反对法庭作出的承诺，妨碍司法公正等行为。

『笺』 藐视法庭罪，其惩罚范围极其宽泛：凡不服从或不尊重法庭或法官、可能影响司法运作之言行，皆可入罪。蔑视法庭罪，部分是渊源于判例法，部分依据1981年《蔑视法庭法案》。

藐视法庭罪，是指负有举证责任的单位和个人迟延提交证据或者拒不提交证据；负有出庭作证的单位和个人无正当理由拒不出庭作证；负有协助法庭执行审判职务的义务拒不履行协助义务；拒不交纳法庭罚款；在法庭上辱骂或者殴打司法工作人员；对法官进行言语攻击和无理纠缠；聚众哄闹、冲击法庭、扰乱法庭秩序，情节严重的行为。Contributory Negligence——分担责任、过失责任

Contributory negligence， is a common law defence to a claim or action in tort. It applies to a situation where a plaintiff or claimant has, through their own negligence, caused or contributed to the injury they suffered from a tort. For example where a pedestrian crosses a road carelessly and is hit by a driver who is also driving carelessly.

注 意外中的伤者对意外的造成及他自己的受伤程度，需要分担部份疏忽的责任，他所获得的赔偿额也会相对地减少。

其适用范围是，当事人双方在该民事侵权行为中因其自己的疏忽而引发的意外伤害，其必须承担一定的责任。

『笺』 关于受害人过错的性质，学说上也有不同的观点，主要有“不忠实态度说”、“违反社会义务说”、“未采取合理注意说”和“未预见说”四种。“不忠实态度说”认为，受害人的过错是指受害人违背诚实信用原则，对其自身采取了不忠实的态度；“违反社会义务说”则认为，人人均对其人身和财产负有一种合理的注意义务，违反此义务实际上构成对社会义务的违反；“未采取合理注意说”认为，受害人负有一种使自己处于安全状态、并不使加害人处于一种负责任的危险状态的义务。若受害人未尽合理注意而违反该义务，则不仅使自己处于不安全状态中，而且使他人处于负责任的不安全状态中，于此场合，受害人便有过错；“未预见说”认为，受害人应当预见并且能够预见到自己可能遭受损害。

Continuance——休庭

The adjournment or postponement of a court case to another day.

注 即暂时中止一案件的审理，并择日再审。

Copyright——版权

An intangible right granted by statute to the author or originator of certain literary or artistic productions, whereby, for a limited period, the exclusive privilege is given to the person to make copies of the same for publication and sale.

注 版权，是作者对他所创作的作品的发表、翻印、复制等专有权利，版权在作品完成后便自动产生及受法律保护，毋须经过任何注册程序，但必须为原创作品才拥有版权。

『笺』 美国的第一部版权法是1790年版权法，这部法律保障作者14年出版“地图、图表和书籍”的专权。美国现行的版权法是1976年修改并于1978年月1月1日生效的版权法。尽管美国版权法是国内法，但其对于外国作者的版权在一定情况下给予保护。即不管作者的国籍，只要其作品于1978年1月1日后第一次在美国出版的，美国版权法对其权利给予一定的保护。如果外国作者的作品是1978年以前出版的，其必须是与美国签订有版权公约的有关国家的公民或者其在美国有住所。关于版权侵权方面，美国版权法仅限于保护侵权行为发生在美国的情况。对发生在美国国外的版权侵权问题，美国版权法一般不对版权所有者提供保护。

Counter Claim——反诉、反要求、反索赔

A claim by the defendant in a civil action that the defendant is entitled to damages or other relief from the plaintiff.

注 在民事诉讼中，被告可以对原告提出赔偿等反要求。

反诉，是指在已经开始的民事诉讼程序里，被告按照起诉的程序和方式，以本诉的原告作为被告，向法院提出的和本诉有联系的保护自己的民事权利和合法利益的请求。原告提起的诉称为本诉（或称原诉），被告提起的诉称为反诉。

『笺』 反诉与反驳不同。反驳是被告为维护自己的合法权益，针对原告提出的诉讼请求，提出种种有利于自己的事实和根据进行驳斥或否定。根据被告所提出的事实和理由的不同，被告的反驳可以分为程序上的反驳和实体上的反驳。

Court-Appointed Attorney:——法庭指定律师、法庭指定辩护律师

An attorney who is asked by the court (judge) to either represent a party to the case, or to serve in some other capacity that the case requires.

注 法庭指定律师，指的是由法庭指定的以代某一案件的当事人进行辩护的律师。

『笺』 美国宪法第六条修正案规定，被告人享有获得律师帮助为其辩护的权利。在司法实践中，这一保障被理解为在刑事诉讼的每个重要阶段被告人都可以由其律师代表，其目的是切实保障刑事被告人在刑事诉讼各阶段的合法权益不受侵犯，切实保障法庭的公正审判得以实现。如果被告人因贫穷无钱聘请律师，法院有义务为其指定律师，费用由政府方开支。

Court Interpreter——庭审口译员

The person who translates court hearings from English to another language. Provided at state expense in all criminal cases and in cases enforcing child support orders, if requested. No interpreter is available for divorce or any other civil case.

注 庭审口译员，即将庭审内容翻译成其他语言的人。庭审口译主要发生在刑事案件和青少年案件中，象离婚等民事案件无权要求庭审口译。

『笺』 有史记载的法庭口译最早可以追溯到十七世纪在南非的殖民时期（Moeketsi, 1999; Mikkelson，2000）。Colin Morris (1996)比较详细地记录了1682年和1820年在英国进行的有口译服务的庭审（引自Mikkelson，2000）。1682年的那次庭审涉及一件凶杀案，诉讼各方有多种语言背景。而当时法庭在决定哪一方诉讼人有权享有法庭口译服务时，依据的不是各方的语言需求而是阶级，即说英语的贵族才有权享有口译服务。1820年的庭审则是一场涉及卡罗琳王后的通奸案。该案的庭审口译不仅翻译了证人证言的语言内容，而且还解释了其中的文化差异（Mikkelson，2000）。

美国联邦法院于1978年制订了《庭审口译员法案》(Court Interpreters Act of 1978)，要求法庭口译员必须完整准确、一字不差地(verbatim)翻译源语信息，不得修饰和省略源语信息，不得更改源话语的语体和语域。该法案为联邦地方法院在美国作为原告时的民事和刑事诉讼中使用庭审口译服务提供了依据，也为颁发庭审口译员证书提供了依据，标志着美国议会对庭审口译这一专业性很强的职业的认可。从此，法庭口译成为一个独立的职业，专门为英语水平较差者提供语言服务。该法案规定的两类服务对象是：只会说或主要说除英语以外的其他语言的，以及有听力障碍的。

Cross-Examination——交互讯问

Questioning by a party or the attorney of an adverse party or a witness.

To question thoroughly and relentlessly to verify facts: interrogate. Informal grill. Idioms: give someone the third degree.

注 所谓cross-examination，按照英美法系的审判制度，起诉方和被告方均可要求法院传唤证人出庭作证，在庭上先由要求传证人的一方向证人提问，然后再由对方向证人提问，也就是起诉方讯问被告方的证人或被告方讯问起诉方的证人，即双方交叉讯问证人。

Custody——保管，监护，拘留

A court order deciding where a child will live and how decisions about the child will be made. Parents may ask for any custody arrangement that they believe is in the best interest of their child.

注 一般而言，Custody这个名词是指对象的保管或拥有，而在刑事案件中，则指对被告的拘留。Custody of Children 是指对未成年子女的监护权。

Damages——损害赔偿金

Money a party receives as compensation for a legal wrong.

注 所谓损害赔偿金，指的是一方当事人因受到侵害而收到的一笔钱。例如：The court awarded the victim of the industrial accident one hundred thousand dollars in damages. （法庭判给劳动事故中受害者100,000美元的赔偿金。）

『笺』 惩罚性赔偿（punitive damages），一般是指由法庭作出的赔偿数额超出了实际损害的赔偿，因此也被称为惩戒性赔偿（exemplary damages）或报复性赔偿（vindictive damages）。在《牛津法律大词典》中，punitive damages，exemplary damages，vindictive damages，是同义词，系一个术语，有时用来指判定的损害赔偿金，它不仅是对原告的补偿，而且也是对故意加害人的惩罚。

另外还有附带性赔偿(incidental damages) 、专门损害赔偿(special damages)等词。

Date rape——约会、约会时发生的案

forcible sexual intercourse by a male acquaintance of a woman, during a voluntary social engagement in which the woman did not intend to submit to the sexual advances and resisted the acts by verbal refusals, denials or pleas to stop, and/or physical resistance. The fact that the parties knew each other or that the woman willingly accompanied the man are not legal defenses to a charge of rape, although one Pennsylvania decision ruled that there had to be some actual physical resistance.

注 被迫的行为如果发生在约会的时候，就称之为“约会”，这同陌生人所犯的行为一样罪恶。Date rape（约会）是熟识者（acquaintance rape）之一种，它比（sexual harassment）的程度更加严重，但又和不同。

Day in court——出庭日

popular term for everyone''s opportunity to bring a lawsuit or use the court system if he/she thinks he/she has a gripe which can be resolved in court. Example: "John finally got his day in court to protest his speeding ticket."

注 一个人出庭申诉或辩护的日子。

Debtor——债务人

One who owes a debt or the performance of an obligation to another, who is called the creditor（债权人）; one who may be compelled to pay a claim or demand; anyone liable on a claim, whether due or to become due.

注 debtor（债务人），即债的关系中有义务按约定的条件向另一方（债权人）承担为或不为一定行为的当事人。在债的关系中，债务人是特定的，只有该义务主体才必须向债权人承担交付财产、提供劳务和为或不为一定行为的义务。债务人可以是公民，可以是法人，国家作为民事主体出现时也可以具备债务人的资格。

Decree——法庭判决、判令

A judgment of a court that announces the legal consequences of the facts found in a case and orders that the court''s decision be carried out.

Decree is sometimes used interchangeably with determination and order.

注 法庭就就某案件所陈事实所作的宣判、判决以及须执行的判令、裁定。Decree（法庭判决）有时可以determination、order来替用。

法庭聆讯后所作出的判令，可以分成暂时性判令“decree nisi””和永久性判令 “decree absolute”，常见于离婚呈请的程序。一般而言，法庭颁出decree nisi后，在指定的期限过后，除非收到反对，否则都会颁出永久判令。

Deed——契约

A written instrument, which has been signed and delivered, by which one individual, the grantor, conveys title to real property to another individual, the grantee; a conveyance of land, tenements, or hereditaments, from one individual to another.

At common law, a deed was an instrument under seal that contained a covenant or contract delivered by the individual who was to be bound by it to the party to whom it was granted. It is no longer required that such an instrument be sealed.

注 契约，是一种特别的合约，须要经过当事人签署、盖章并送交对方才算有效，契约上的盖章在法律上被视为一种有效的约因。它一般指土地、房屋、可继承财产的转让。

De facto——事实上的、实际的

Latin for "in fact." Often used in place of "actual" to show that the court will treat as a fact authority being exercised or an entity acting as if it had authority, even though the legal requirements have not been met.

注 De facto（事实上的、实际的），de facto系拉丁文，意谓“虽法律上站不住，但事实上却为人所承认”。例如：de facto segregation（事实上的种族隔离）；a de facto （事实政府）；de facto standard（实质标准）。

又如，de facto corporation：地下工厂，又称“事实上公司”(corporation de facto)，即指未领有政府发给的合法执照，便开始营业或开工生产的公司或工厂。该公司或工厂。该公司或工厂虽未合法登记成立，但其法律行为并非无效，例如其负责人与他人签订契约后，不得以该公司或工厂未经政府许可成立而拒绝履约。

『笺』 De facto marriage（事实婚姻），是与法律婚姻相对而言的婚姻形式，指符合结婚的法定实质要件的男女双方未办理结婚登记即以夫妻名义公开、长久同居生活的两性结合。英国、德国、美国、日本等国法律都承认事实婚姻，我国立法对事实婚姻的态度经历了“承认－不承认－承认”三个阶段。

Defalcation——盗用公款、挪用公款、侵吞公款

from Latin for "deduction," withholding or misappropriating funds held for another, particularly by a public official, or failing to make a proper accounting.

注 Defalcation（盗用/挪用/侵吞公款），源于拉丁语，意谓“扣除、减除”。此词指通过帐以扣交或盗用公款。

Defamation——诽谤

The publication of a statement that injures a person''s reputation. Libel and slander are defamation.

注 Defamation（诽谤），即非法破坏他人名誉的行为，口头的毁谤和以书面的永久形式诽谤都可以构成民事索偿的理据或者刑事罪行。

『笺』 根据一般的解释，所谓诽谤指的是恶意的评议。但在法律立场上，各国对诽谤行为的构成，各有不同的解释。例如在英国，诽谤被定义为“可以使公民受到憎恨、嘲笑或藐视的表述”，“使公民在思维正常的人中对他的评价降低的表述”等。在美国，诽谤的代表性定义有多种。美国最高法院为诽谤所下的定义是：“诽谤乃对于尊严之损害，如无其他正常原因，而故意刊布有害于某个人记载，此种记载又为虚伪的、或对他人属实，而对此受害人个人则否者，亦应负一般的违法责任。”纽约州刑法第1340条规定： “怀有恶意出版文字、印刷品、、画像、标记或者其他非口头形式的物品，使活着的人或对去的人的记忆受到憎恨、藐视、嘲笑或指责，使他人受到孤立或有受到孤立的倾向，或使他人或任何公司、社团在经验或职业上的名誉有受到损害的倾向，皆为诽谤。”

英美等西方国家的法律对“诽谤”的解释虽然不尽相同，但基本不出乎美国法学(American Law Institute)汇编的《民事侵权行为重述》这样的定义：“传播某种信息，这种传播倾向毁损他人名誉，以至于降低社会对他的尊重度，或阻止第三人与他产生关系，即为诽谤。”（See American Law Institute，Restatement of Torts,2d ed. Philadelphia:American Law Institute,1975）

Default——不履行责任/义务、失责行为、违约、缺席

The failure to fulfill a legal obligation, such as neglecting to pay back a loan on schedule.

Failure to make a required court appearance.

注 Default（不履行义务）即不履行法律义务。

另外，此词还审判时的缺庭。如default judgment（缺席审判）。

Defence/ defense——抗辩、辩护、答辩

1) a general term for the effort of an attorney representing a defendant during trial and in pre-trial maneuvers to defeat the party suing or the prosecution in a criminal case.

2) a response to a complaint, called an affirmative defense, to counter, defeat or remove all or a part of the contentions of the plaintiff.

注 刑事或民事案件中的被告，否认有关的指控或申索，同时提出反对的支持事实。

『笺』 在诉讼上，当事人对于原告请求主张的事实，其反映态度不外有以下四种：即陈述（无该事实－否认）、不知或不记得有该事实、承认该事实（自认或先行自认的承认）、或不为任何陈述（不争执）。而对于自认往往伴有附带陈述而主张其他事实或权利来对原告的请求进行对抗，这就是抗辩。所以，在民事诉讼中，所谓抗辩，是针对请求权提出的一种防御方法，是指当事人通过主张与对方的主张事实所不同的事实或法律关系，以排斥对方所主张的事实的行为。

Deadlock in the negotiations the two sides into a totally unable to deal with the situation. It affects the efficiency of talks, negotiators contusion of the self-esteem. Therefore, every effort should be made to avoid an impasse in the negotiations. In the impasse has taken shape, the general should take the following measures to ease the antagonism between the two sides so that negotiations on a new turn for the better.

First, it should discard the old traditional concepts, a correct understanding of the impasse in the negotiations. Many negotiators to the impasse as a failure of the concept in an attempt to avoid it, in which, under the guidance of thinking, rather than take active measures to avoid, but to avoid negative. Before the talks started, to pray with each other smoothly reached an agreement to complete the transaction, do not trouble the accident. Especially when he has a contract with the other side of the mission, the mood is even more urgent. As a result, in order to avoid a deadlock, everything has always given way to the other side, once an impasse, it will quickly lose confidence and patience, and even doubts about their own sense, the plan worked out in advance also had a shake, Some regretted how ... .... This line of thinking has hindered the negotiators make better use of negotiation strategy, everything has always given way to the outcome of that has to reach a bad agreement.

It should be noted that the impasse between the two sides appear as a whole. If you can correctly understand and handle properly, will become beneficial to the disadvantaged. We do not agree that the impasse as a strategy for the use of coercion against a compromise solution, but it can not give way to compromise, so that not only can not avoid the deadlock, but also their very passive. As long as have the courage and patience in the face of the preservation of the other party under the premise of flexibility in the use of a variety of tactics, techniques, can not overcome the impasse is not the fortress.

Secondly, the easy way out. To divert people's attention may well be an effective way. So sometimes the negotiations impasse, is in a stalemate on the issue. At this time, can avoid this problem, other provisions of the consultations. For example, both in terms of price, refused to give ground, the stalemate could be the issue aside for the time being, to discuss the date of delivery, payment, transport and insurance provisions. If you deal with these issues, the two sides are satisfied with the firm could solve the problem of confidence. If one particular satisfaction, it is possible to make adequate provisions for price concessions.

Third, the use of the adjournment of the strategy. The impasse in the negotiations, both sides are feeling a bit emotional tension, it is difficult at the talks to continue. At this time, adjournment is a good way to ease, with the consent of the host country can agree to the guests, adjourned the meeting. By the time the adjournment of the two sides to calm down and carefully consider the contentious issue may also be convened by the respective members of the negotiating team, brainstorming, to discuss concrete solutions.

Fourth, changes in environmental negotiations. Even so very hard to take a lot of ways, is still difficult to break the deadlock in negotiations, this time, the negotiations could be considered a change environment.

Experience has shown that the two sides sincere heart-to-heart talk on easing the deadlock is also very effective. If the two sides stressed the importance of successful cooperation between the two sides of the common interests of the pleasure experienced in the past Cooperation and friendly cross-lived, and so on in order to promote the transformation of attitude toward each other. Where necessary, the person in charge of the talks the two sides can separate consultations.

Fifth, the regulation of the use of people. When there have been more serious impasse, the mutual feelings might have been hurt. As a result, even if the party put forward proposals to ease the other side it is difficult to accept emotionally. In this case, it is best to find a mutually acceptable mediator or arbitrator as a regulator.

Sixth, the adjustment of the negotiators. When the negotiation stalemate between the two sides have been emotional, not adjustable and may consider replacing the negotiations, or higher status, please come forward, the issue of consultations and negotiations.

If the negotiators, the two sides have a mutual prejudices, in particular, the main negotiators, then the talks will be very difficult to continue. Even if the negotiations is to change the venue, or take other measures to ease, it is difficult to fundamentally solve the problem. The formation of the situation on the ground that the negotiations can not be in a good and the problem of discrimination by the issue of differences for the development of personal conflicts between the two sides. Of course, also can not ignore the context of different cultures, people of different values.

In some cases, such as the negotiations have agreed on most of the provisions, because of one or two key unresolved issues can not be entered into the contract. At this time, we have a higher status by the person in charge of negotiations, said the stalemate on the issue of care and attention. At the same time, this is the other side to exert a certain degree of psychological pressure on the other side had to give up higher requirements to make some compromise so as to facilitate agreement.